Academic “discovery” of Siberia

The era of stable “scientific development” of Siberian territories started in the XVIIIth century. First of all it was connected with the opening of the Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg in 1724 under Peter I. Major tasks of the Academy included study of natural resources and geographical conditions of the vast and poorly-investigated territories of the Russian Empire. Therefore, from the very beginning the Academy focused its activity on organization of geographical expeditions. At that time I.K. Kirillov issued the first printed atlas of Russia. Outstanding historian and geographer V.N. Tatischev was one of the first to develop theoretical statements on methods and tasks of national geography. He undertook a number of pioneer surveys of natural resources and other geographical aspects of Ural and Western Siberia.

Everyone knows a remarkable aphorism of the first Russian naturalist of universal importance and the first Russian academician Mikhail Lomonosov saying that “Russia’s power will be increased by Siberia”.

The period from 1725 till mid 1760’s was marked by large-scale academic expeditions throughout Siberian territory. The result of these expeditions is a large scientific and research heritage which is still relevant and includes several great discoveries.

European scientists personally invited by the Russian emperors to participate in solving complicated research tasks played an important part on early stages of formation of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Danish commander Vitus Bering is one of the most famous European scientists in Russia.

In 1725, shortly before his death, Peter I gave an order to put on foot an expedition to Kamchatka. The main target of the expedition was to find out if the Asian territory of Russia joined America. Vitus Bering was appointed expedition chief. In the course of five-year voyage the expedition reached the Pacific coast and the mouth of the Kamchatka River. The Bays of Kamchatka, Karaga, Krest and Avacha were discovered; over 3500 km of Bering Sea were mapped. In 1730 the expedition returned to Saint Petersburg. Vitus Bering presented to the Russian government a project of a grandiose marine expedition from Arkhangelsk through the seas of the Arctic Ocean and Bering Strait to the seas of the Pacific Ocean. The task of new expedition was to study geographical conditions of the Arctic and Pacific coasts and to search for the sea route to America and Japan.

In 1732 the Second Kamchatka Expedition was approved. It consisted of seven separate crews under general management of Vitus Bering. He was assisted by Alexey Chirikov and Danish seaman Martyn Shpanberg, Bering’s compatriot and participant of the First Kamchatka Expedition. In February 1733 academic crews made their way from Saint Petersburg towards ordeals and great discoveries.

The task of the first crew was to study and map the route from Vaigach Island to Yamal Peninsula and to the mouth of the Ob River. In July 1734 two small boats “Expedition” and “Ob” put to the sea from Arkhangelsk. However the first attempts to follow the route were ineffective due to heavy ice conditions, sea scurvy epidemic and contradictions in the crew. Only in 1737 the crew headed by Stepan Malygin, Naval Academy graduate, doubled Yamal Peninsula and reached the mouth of the Ob River.

In 1734 the second crew, headed by lieutenant Dmitry Ovtsyn, put to the sea on a two-master “Tobol” from Tobolsk. The task of the crew was to double Taimyr Peninsula and to reach the mouth of the Khatanga River. The expedition moved forward very slowly due to harsh climatic conditions and many other hardships. Only in 1740 Ovtsyn’s assistant Dmitry Sterlegov went along Taimyr coast on dog-sledge. Other crewmember Fedor Minin on the boat “Ob-Pochtalyon” tried to reach the month of the Khatanga River without success due to solid mass of ice.

Two other crews put to the sea from Yakutsk. One should have doubled Taimyr from the west; the other should have followed the track of Semen Dezhnev and reached Bering Strait. After the death of lieutenant Vasily Pronchischev of the sea scurvy the navigator Semen Chelyuskin became the chief of the crew moving towards Taimyr. Afterwards lieutenant Khariton Laptev was appointed the crew leader. In 1742 Semen Chelyuskin reached the northern extremity of Asia – the cape later on named after him. Khariton Laptev surveyed the coast from Lena to Khatanga and Taimyr Peninsula. He charted the Bay of Khatanga, Pyasina and Khatanga rivers; he discovered Bolshoy Begichev and Maly Begichev Islands and the central part of Byranga Mountains.

The crew going from Yakutsk to Bering Strait was soon headed by Dmitry Laptev, the cousin of Khariton Laptev. This crew investigated the coast of the Arctic Ocean between Lena and Bolshoy Baranov Cape, it surveyed the rivers of Yana, Indigirka, Khroma, Kolyma, Bolshoy Anyuy and Anadyr.
The crew headed by Martyn Shpanberg studied Kurile Islands and discovered the seaway to Japan.

Expedition crew headed by Vitus Bering left a remarkable trace in the history of development of the eastern borders of Russia. This crew discovered the strait between northern Asia and America, which was afterwards named after Bering. The crew described the northern shores of Kamchatka and the northwest coast of America. A number of islands were discovered. Bering was the first to reach Kamchatka Sea, which was afterwards named after him. This grandiose expedition became a peculiar crown of renowned commander’s exploration activity. In 1741 Vitus Bering died during wintering on the island later named after him.

Alexey Chirikov headed the expedition and continued investigations after Bering’s death. Irrespective of a heavy case of tuberculosis Alexey Chrikiv upon his return from the expedition was summarizing its results till his last days. He worked on the Atlas of the Russian Academy of Sciences by adding the unique geographical discoveries to the maps.

The second Kamchatka Expedition of Bering became a breakthrough in the academic study of Siberia and Far East territories. The heritage left by the whole constellation of researchers going to the unexplored eastern remote areas of Russia is still valuable. It is proved by frequent addresses of contemporary scientists (including historians, geographers, biologists, ethnographers, geologists and others) to this heritage. Thus, Stepan Krasheninnikov was the first to describe Kamchatka geysers and lakes. He collected ethnographic data on the local aboriginals – itelmen and kamchadals, and carried out a detailed study of local flora and fauna. “Description of Kamchatka Land” completed by Krasheninnikov in the end of his life has been an unsurpassed work according to its empirical coverage for a long time.

Krasheninnikov’s colleague – Georg Steller – entered the history of zoology as the first to describe an unusual and unique animal called the sea cow or Steller’s sea cow, which was completely exterminated afterwards.

Georg Steller’s life deserves special attention because the name of this outstanding scientist is closely related to Siberia forever. In 1746 Steller was arrested on his way back from the Second Kamchatka expedition to Saint Petersburg. He was accused of unauthorized release of kamchadals suspected in preparation of a rebellion from prison. Steller was taken to Irkutsk under escort. However, after interrogation he was forgiven and allowed going back to Saint Petersburg. During his stop in Tyumen Steller caught a bad cold and soon died. Steller’s grave did not remain till present days. Presumably this outstanding scientist was buried on the bank of Tura close to Troitsky Monastery.

РGerard Müller was the chief of an academic crew of the Second Kamchatka Expedition. Later he became the first Rector of Petersburg University. He left an outstanding scientific heritage including valuable historic, geographical and ethnographical descriptions of Siberia. G.F. Müller well deserves the title of “the father of Russian historiography”. In fact, thanks to Müller’s activity many unique documents on the history of Siberia were involved into scientific use, including Siberian (Kungur) Chronicle of S.U. Remezov, documents on travels of S.I. Dezhnev, documents from the archives of more than twenty Siberian towns. G.F. Müller kept and summarized direct ethnographical, archaeological and common observations. The inquiry forms he used to systematize various pieces of information on life in Siberian towns to a certain extent could refer to an attempt of early sociological studies in Siberia. Most of collected descriptions of Siberia make part of research archive known as “Müller’s bags” The book “History of Siberia” (“Description of Siberian kingdom”) is the most famous publication of G.F. Müller. It is agreed by many of the contemporary historians that the scientific heritage of G.F. Müller remains one of the most interesting sources in the historiography of Siberia.

German scientist Daniel Gottlieb Messerschmidt made an important contribution into study of Siberian nature. Following the initiative of Peter I in 1718 Messerschmidt went to Siberia “for investigation of any rarities and pharmaceutical things: herbs, flowers, roots and seeds and other items for medicinal compositions”. Apart from that the scientist also described the fauna and geological peculiarities of Siberia and carried out ethnographical studies. Messerschmidt’s tour around Siberia totally lasted for about seven years. Within this period of time he investigated vast territories from Western Siberia to Trans-Baikal. Irrespective of the fact that many of Messerschmidt’s works were not published due to some tragic circumstances, further generations consider the range of scientific observations and ascetic activity of this researcher as unchallengeable.

In Tobolsk Messerschmidt met Swedish lieutenant colonel Philip Johan von Strahlenberg, taken prisoner at the Battle of Poltava and exiled to Siberia. Strahlenberg accompanied Messerschmidt during several expeditions. He made a precise map of Siberia. By accident this map fell into the hands of Peter I who found it very interesting. After signing of Nishtadt Peace Treaty Strahlenberg obtained authorization to return to Sweden. In 1730 he published a book “Historical and geographical description of northern and eastern Europe and Asia” (Das Nord und Oestliche Theil von Europa und Asia) in Lubeck. Afterwards this book was translated into the Russian language. Strahlenberg's works represent an interesting historical source containing much valuable information on Western Siberia of the beginning of the XVIIIth century. Strahlenberg's contribution into studies of languages of aboriginal population of Ural and Siberia is of particular interest.

Another outstanding scientist of German origin who made a considerable contribution into the study of Siberia was Peter Pallas. He arrived to Russia upon invitation of the Empress Catherine II in order to organize a big expedition aimed at obtaining missing data on the nature, economy and population of Russia. In 1768-1774 Pallas headed Academic Expedition to carry out investigation of the remote areas in the southeast of Russia. Being a scientist of encyclopaedic scale Pallas gathered comprehensive and versatile geographical, geological, botanical, zoological and ethnographical information in the course of this expedition.
Pallas’s voyage was of great practical significance. It provided data on unique natural resources of Eastern Siberia and Altai, which had been poorly studied until that time. Contemporary scientists highly appreciate Pallas’s descriptions of Siberian nature because these descriptions refer to the remote places not yet affected by human impact.

“Travels through different provinces of the Russian state” (1771-1776) and “Russian Flora” (1784-1788) are the most famous works of Peter Pallas representing the results of his Siberian expeditions.

An important event in the history of “scientific development” of Siberia is travelling of Alexander Humboldt, an outstanding German scientist. Humboldt’s scientific heritage is so versatile, that a whole number of modern scientific trends refers him to its founder, including regional geography and other domains of humanitarian geography, botanical geography, geosphere study, geophysics, mineralogy and other. Scientific heritage of Humboldt organically combines the above said natural-science and humanitarian disciplines, and it can be considered as advanced attempt of interdisciplinary synthesis of knowledge on natural condition and life on the Earth. His heritage greatly influenced development of modern geography.

In May 1829 Alexander Humboldt arrived to Saint Petersburg. He was accompanied by a chemist and mineralogist Gustav Rose and botanist-zoologist Gustav Herenburg.

Humboldt’s expedition party travelled through the mines and factories of Central Ural. On its way the party made a research study of natural resources of the area. Then it went through Tyumen and Tobolsk. Study of Altai natural conditions was the next target of the party. There’s historical data on a funny incident happened with Humboldt on the way to Barnaul. During a stop in Ishim the scientist decided to make astronomical observations. Late in the evening he climbed a hill in the outskirts of the town with a telescope. The city police inspector Stotchen learnt about it and decided that a suspicious foreigner intended to destroy the town with an unknown arm. Stotchen sent the militaries to detain the stranger. (Sarafannikova L.A. Young age of oil town. // Ishim far and close: Educational essays. - Ishim: IGPI named after P.P. Yershov, 1997. - p. 38-49).

ПHumboldt’s travelling throughout Siberia lasted for about five months. Alexander Humboldt and his companions gathered empirical data on natural conditions of Ural and Siberia. This data considerably enriched the knowledge of the region available at that time. In 1837 a collection of A. Humboldt’s notes was published in St-Petersburg. It included description of his Siberian travel and an article “On chains of mountains and volcanoes in Inner Asia”. Later Gustav Rose who accompanied Humboldt published a number of works devoted to mineralogy of Ural and Western Siberia.

Travel of Finnish researcher Mathias Castren keeps a remarkable place in the history of academic expeditions to Siberia. Castren’s domain of scientific interests was lying in studying Finno-Ugric languages and ethnography. In order to prove cognation of Samodiy and Finnish languages Castren participated in a number of expeditions in Northern Europe and Siberia in 1838-1848. He entered the history of science as an outstanding field researcher of languages and nations of Ural and Siberia and a founder of Samodiy linguistics. Castren composed Grammar manuals and dictionaries in 20 languages. Grammar manuals of Khanty, Mariy and Komi languages were published during his lifetime.

The fate of Mathias Castren is a striking example of researcher’s heroism. He neglected severe conditions of expedition and a disease. He made major part of travelling in Siberia suffering from tuberculosis. His works were published after his death and consisted of 12 volumes under a common name of “Northern travels and researches of Doctor M.A. Castren”.

Siberia is homeland of one of the most renowned and outstanding representatives of Russian academic science. Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev was born in Tobolsk in 1834. Despite the fact that Mendeleev made most of his great discoveries far from homeland, indirectly he produced a profound effect on formation of scientific approaches to development of natural resources. In particular it is proved by his studies in the domain of natural resources development and processing of raw oil. Mendeleev repeatedly expressed his confidence in promising industrial future of Siberia.

In the second half of the XVIIth century the earliest inhabitants of Yakutsk burg made a discovery inexplicable for a long time. In summertime, even in the period of fierce heat, the ground was still frozen. The people could keep foodstuffs in cellars for several years. In 1828 a merchant from Velikiy Ustyug residing in Yakutsk Fedor Shergin started digging 116-meters well. For the first time the samples of permafrost soil were discovered, lifted to the surface and put for systematic examination. Shergin’s investigations attracted attention of Alexander Middendorf and Karl Baer – organizers of the expedition of 1843-1844. The task of the expedition was to study peculiar features of organic life in the North, as well as to study depth and limits of permafrost rocks. The results of permafrost study became in many respects revolutionary for natural science development of that time.

The initiator of Soviet permafrost study and cryopedology M.I. Sumgin, the author of pioneer monograph “Permafrost ground in USSR” (1927), repeatedly mentioned that study of Karl Baer and Alexander Middendorf was in a sense a starting point in development of these branches of science.

From the XVIIIth century participants of academic expeditions throughout northern areas of Siberia regularly found remains of fossil mammoths. In 1806 adjunct of the Academy of Sciences in Yakutsk Adams learnt about a find of frozen mammoth body in the mouth of the Lena River. Flesh, skin and fur were preserved. Adams delivered mammoth’s skeleton to the Museum of Academy of Sciences. This valuable finding allowed the researchers comparing mammoths with the other species of elephants and approaching solution of the problem of appearance and existence of these animals in the North.

In 1932 expedition of Otto Schmidt made the first voyage from Arkhangelsk to Bering Strait on I. Sibiryakov Ice-breaker within one season. It proved the possibility to navigate along the Northern Sea Route between the basins of the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. In 1933 Otto Schmidt headed a new expedition on Tchelyuskin Steamship. The aim of the expedition was to prove the possibility to navigate on the Northern Sea Route on a transport boat. In the end of the itinerary the steamship was jammed by the ice, drifted to the north and sunk. The crew disembarked on drift-ice. It’s noteworthy that heroism of researchers in extreme arctic conditions caused institution of the highest award for Motherland service. Otto Schmidt was the first person conferred the Title of Hero of the Soviet Union.

Regular communication along the Northern Sea Route started in 1937. It initiated appearance of the northernmost spots of the country including Igarka, Dixon and Pevek. Nowadays development of the Northern Sea Route is connected with discoveries of offshore oil deposits in the Arctic Ocean. Even by a modest computation the reserves of these deposits are estimated at 100 billion tons of oil.