The Way to Siberia

THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR (1932—1933)

A. O. Andreev*, M. V. Dukalskaja*, S. V. Frolov**

За After the First International Polar Year the studies of polar areas advanced considerably. Rapid development of science and engineering in the end of the XIXth century and in the beginning of the XXth century favoured this advance. Icebreakers and vessels of ice class were built. Aircrafts were used for delivery of goods to hard-to-reach areas, for ice patrol and vessels piloting. Wireless radio development allowed establishing communication and network of meteorological stations and polar research stations. Notions on atmospheric processes changed considerably. Meteorology was under active development.

In 1927 the President of German Marine Observatory in Hamburg H. Dominic and his colleague I. Georgi came up with an idea to organise the Second International Polar Year. International Steering Committee was formed in September 1929 in Copenhagen. Representatives of 10 countries entered the Committee. Danish physician professor De La Cour was elected Chairman of the Committee.

Director of USSR Hydro Meteo Service A.F. Vangengeim headed IPY National Steering Committee. N.N. Zubov was elected the Secretary of the Committee. Famous Soviet scientists participated in the Committee work including O.Yu. Shmidt, Yu.I. Shokalsky, V.Yu. Vize, P.A. Molchanov. V.V. Shuleikin, M.A. Bonch-Bruevich and others.

International Polar Commission developed a research programme. According to the programme the principal task of the Second International Polar Year was study of atmospheric circulation in polar areas and in the first place in the Arctic. It was planned to develop a network of polar stations and sea crafts for simultaneous observations. IPY Programme included meteorological and astronomical observations, studies of solar radiation, atmospheric electricity, and terrestrial magnetism, observations of northern lights and radio propagation, projects on glaciology and oceanography. Additional meteorological observations were planned including, for instance, clouds observations on international cloudy days. Actinometrical observations on polar research stations were of big importance. For the first time a research programme of free atmosphere investigation was adopted. This programme included launching kites and balloons with meteorographs, pilot-balloons and radiosounding. Soviet scientist P.A. Molchanov developed radiosonde. It was first launched in 1930 in Pavlovsk.

New observations instruments were developed in different countries. Besides Molchanov’s radiosonde, in 1932-1933 magnetic devices of De La Cour, general airflow device of V.V. Shuleikin and devices for studying of snow and ice radiation properties of N.N. Kalitin were applied for the first time.

Arctic Research Stations in the framework of the Second International Polar Year

92 Soviet Arctic research stations including 33 new stations were involved into implementation of the Second IPY Programme. New stations were built in the Tiksi Bay, on the Chelyuskin Cape, the Severny Cape (presently the Shmidt Cape) and in other places. The station on the Rudolf Island (the Franz Josef Land) located at 81° 48' N was considered as the northernmost hydrometeorological station in the world.

One of the first Soviet polar stations carrying out research activity in the framework of the Second International Polar Year Programme was the observatory in the Tikhaya Bay on the Guker Island (the Franz Josef Land). The observatory possessed all modern equipment of that time including a powerful radio station and an electric power station, a meteorological platform and geophysical pavilions. The researchers carried out geophysical surveys, meteorological observations, radiopropagation observations and radiosounding. Radiosounding helped obtaining 31 temperature cross-sections of the atmosphere up to the height of 11,5 km. Several hiking tours and sledge trips were made to the neighbouring islands. Topographical and magnetic surveys of the area were made.

According to the Second IPY Programme polar research stations of Austria, Great Britain, Germany, Holland, Denmark, Iceland, Canada, Norway, the USA, Poland, Finland, France and Sweden were installed. Most stations were located in Greenland, on the Spitsbergen Island and in Alaska. Some stations carried out specific research activity on top of the compulsory programme. The Dutch and Danish stations in Reykjavik (Iceland) studied upper atmosphere by lifting recording instrument on board an aircraft. They also carried out pilot observations of clouds.

Marine expeditions
In the framework of the Second IPY several marine expeditions performed research activity in the Arctic in 1932 — 1933 to supplement studies carried out by polar research stations. The USSR launched 26 marine expeditions in order to carry out hydrological study of the Arctic basin and neighbouring areas of the World Ocean.

State Oceanographic Institute (SOI) made a big contribution into study of the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea. In 1932—1933 six SOI expeditions on “Knipovich” vessel worked in the Barents Sea and in the area along Kolsky meridian (33° 30' E). The expedition on “Perseus” vessel worked in the same area and on the section between the capes of Nordcap and Southcap. The expeditions carried out associated meteorological observations.

It is worthy mentioning 2 other expeditions: the expedition of the Central Hydrogeography Office on “Taimyr” vessel headed by A.M. Lavrov carried out hydrological and hydrographical surveys in the northern part of the Kara Sea in 1932; the expedition of the All-Union Arctic Institute on “Malygin” icebreaker headed by N.V. Pinegin studied stream conditions in the northern part of the Franz Josef Land archipelago, collected map material, carried out investigations on hydrochemistry and atmospheric electricity.

The main task of the expeditions was to deliver equipment and foodstuffs, and to rotate the staff of polar stations. The research staff of the expeditions performed observations in accordance with IPY Programme. For instance, in 1932 the expedition of the All-Union Arctic Institute on “Rusanov” icebreaker built a radio station on the Chelyuskin Cape, ensured rotation of polar explorers team in the Domashny Island and carried out investigation of the straits near the Severnaya Zemlya Island. This expedition headed by R.L. Samoilovich set up a mountain glaciological station in the Novaya Zemlya Island.

It is also worthy mentioning a foreign marine expedition to the Arctic. In summer 1933 the German crew on research vessel “Meteor” studied East-Iceland current and the Greenland Sea. The expedition crew launched pilot-balloons and radiosondes, and performed meteorological observations in accordance with IPY Research Programme.

Some fishing boats and catcher boats carried out associated meteorological observations in the framework of IPY Programme.

Expedition of “A. Sibiryakov” icebreaker
One of the most important events of the Second International Polar Year was a voyage of “A. Sibiryakov” icebreaker along the Northern Sea Route from Arkhangelsk to Vladivostok within one navigation season. Director of the All-Union Arctic Institute O.Yu. Shmidt was appointed the head of this expedition. Famous polar captain V.I. Voronin was the captain of “Sibiryakov” steamship. P.P. Shirshov, Ya.Ya. Gakkel. A.F. Laktionov and other researchers took part in this expedition. V.Yu. Vize managed the research programme of the expedition. The programme included hydrophysical, hydrological, hydrobiological, geomagnetic, geological and geodesic surveys.

“Sibiryakov” left Arkhangelsk on the 28th of July 1932. The vessel was in touch with polar research stations of the Kara Sea by radio, thus the crew was aware of the ice conditions. On the 13th of August the vessel reached the Domashny Island of Severnaya Zemlya archipelago where “Sibiryakov” crew met a group of winterers headed by G.A. Ushakov. The decision on further route of the ship was taken on the basis of the information on ice conditions in the area of the Severnaya Zemlya and the map of archipelago made by N.N. Urvantsev. It was decided to pass round the archipelago from the North. In the beginning of September the ship was blocked by ice in the Chuckchee Sea. Propeller shaft was broken. The ship without steering was drifting in the direction of the Bering Strait, some time later it was drifting in the reverse direction. It was decided to set sails and “Sibiryakov” returned to the Bering Strait. For the first time a vessel managed to go along the Northern Sea Route within one navigation season.

Glaciological surveys
Glaciological surveys made part of the Soviet Research Programme of the Second IPY. The investigations were carried out not only in the Arctic, but also in non-polar zone of the USSR. The Research programme included fixed observations of the glaciers. Researchers in mountain stations and during expeditions to glaciers carried out meteorological, hydrological, glaciological and geomorphological observations.

The expeditions were sent to the Urals, Altai, the Caucasus and Middle Asia. Unknown mountain areas were studied in detail and mapped. New glaciers were discovered. Glaciological expedition headed by M.N. Ermolayev made an important contribution into studies of ice cover in the Arctic. The expedition crew performed seismometric estimation of the land ice thickness.

The Antarctic surveys
In accordance with the Research Programme of the Second International Polar Year the Antarctic surveys were of smaller scale compared with the Arctic surveys. In 1932—1933 the expeditions from the USA, Great Britain, Norway and Australia carried out research activities in the southern polar area. Several research stations worked in the islands of Sub-Antarctic.

In the beginning of 1934 the second Antarctic expedition of R. Byrd set up Little-America II station on Ross ice shelf. Participants of ground tours carried out geological surveys and made several geographical discoveries.

Norway made a valuable contribution into study of the Antarctic. According to IPY Research Programme 10 whale-boats performed meteorological observations in the Antarctic waters.

Results of the Second IPY
44 states participated in the International Polar Year programme. Large quantity of meteorological, aerological, hydrological, geophysical and other data underlay numerous scientific papers. For example, detailed map of the Kara Sea and its straits was made on the basis of data obtained by Soviet marine expeditions. The first forecasts of ice conditions for Arctic seas were developed. Most stations set up in the beginning of the research programme continued research work upon programme completion. Thus, International Polar Year encouraged development of research stations network. The voyage of “Sibiryakov” along the Northern Sea Route initiated use of the Route as active main waterway. On the 17th of December 1932 GLAVSEVMORPUT (Northern Sea Route General Office) was established. Regular commercial shipping operations started by the end of the 1930’s.

* Russian state museum of Arctic and Antarctic

** Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI)